Introduction
Among the keys to the success of an engineering design project is to have external reviewers examine the efforts of the design team and make recommendations on areas that need further development or improvement. It is also important to make sure that compliance and human resource issues are addressed, and these topics will be examined in this section.
Objective
Prepare the student to manage the review, compliance and human resources issues relative to a project.
Study Time: 4.0 hours
Overview
You must have a means of tracking the project progress so you know where you stand. But you are not the only one interested in knowing how your project is doing. So it also becomes important to be able to report what you have tracked in a clear and concise manner that will convey the pertinent and necessary information to your management and customers.
It is always easier to find the mistakes in someone else’s work than it is to find the errors in your own. You have spent so much time on the project that it becomes difficult to see the difference between what you meant to say from what you have actually said. Additionally, spotting inconsistencies in your presentation can be difficult. For these reasons, a series of external reviews is usually conducted.
The design team is used to thinking about whether the product that is being designed complies with all the requirements and specifications that have been developed during the design process. However, government laws and regulations contain numerous restrictions on the export of items, products, equipment, technology, and software. These rules can affect the design projects being conducted by a business who sells its products or services across national borders. This section provides a general overview of the rules that must considered.
Much has been said in this module about the effectiveness of design teams. But how does one ensure that the appropriate people are available within the organization? And how do you ensure that the people you have are happy and well-adjusted in their positions, such that they can be the most productive? Additionally, what happens when there are unpleasant issues regarding harassment in the workplace? These issues fall within the role of Human Resources, but it is important for the project manager to understand their implications.
Project Monitoring
Engineering analysis requires applying numbers to things so as to numerically quantify them. Anything less is just opinion. Therefore, as you manage a project, you must develop some metric for monitoring and assessing progress.
Here are some critical steps that a project manager must take to monitor and track the progress of a project.
What should be monitored?
- Determine the Key Factors for your project. You can always fall back on cost, scope and schedule.
- Trying looking at your WBS to see if it points you toward critical factors to monitor.
- Do not look to simply use the easy data, rather, you should look for the right data to use, even if it is harder to gather.
- Specify a reasonable performance level.
- Do not be overly precise.
- Do not be so lenient as to be meaningless.
Samples of data you can gather
- Frequency count – This is a simple tally of number of errors or complaints. Make sure that they all truly get reported, or else your data is meaningless.
- Raw numbers – Data such as dollars, hours, physical resources used, etc. are fairly easy to track and present you with a quantitative analysis. But you must be consistent in how you count and you must catch all the data.
- Verbal measures – these are truly qualitative, not quantitative, and are based on sense or feel. This means that the meanings must be mutually understood or else differences between individuals gather the data will creep in.
- Subjective numerical ratings – This allows you to take a qualitative feel and turn it into a numerical score which permits you to create a quantitative representation of a qualitative assessment.
- Indicators - Sometimes you cannot measure what you actually want, so you have to look to see if you can find some indicator of it.
Project Reporting
Here are some critical factors that a project manager must include when reporting the progress of a project.
Who and what should be involved in the reporting?
- Everyone concerned with the project should be involved
- Reporting metrics need to be connected to the reporting system in some manner.
There are a variety of report types:
- Routine – These reports occur on a routinely scheduled basis no matter what is happening.
- Exception – These occur only when something out of the ordinary occurs.
- Special Analysis – These are requested only when it has been determined necessary to analyze a particular aspect.
Report Frequency
- Long gaps – Sometimes long periods of time may pass between reports.
- Daily – In critical situations, a daily report may be required so as to track progress in solving a problem
- Anything in between
Reports may be presented in-person in a meeting rather than in a written or electronic report.
When this occurs, there are things that you should and should not do.
- Avoid show-and-tell presentations
- Use the meeting for decision making or data gathering
- Adhere to start and end times
- Be prepared so as to not waste the time of those involved
- Produce minutes (avoid attributing remarks)
- Avoid rigid rules of order, let the meeting flow
- Stick to a single purpose meeting, if multiple topics need to be covered, schedule multiple meetings.
Earned Value
One quantitative metric that is often used is generated by the Earned Value Analysis.
- How much value earned on each item produced?
- Is it earned at completion of item?
- Is it earned 50/50 at midpoint and end?
- Is it earned proportionally throughout?
- Cost Variance = EV – AC
- EV = Earned Value
- AC = Actual Cost
- Schedule Variance = EV – PV
- EV = Earned Value
- PV = Planned Value
- Time Variance = Scheduled Time – Actual Time
Project Control
Project managers have to have some way to exert control over aspects of the project.
What should you endeavour to control?
- Physical Asset Control
- Human Resource Control
- Financial Resource Control
Types of Control Processes
- Go/No-Go – The process either meets a set standard or it does not. If it does not, the process is stopped.
- Post-Performance – This assesses whether standards have been met only at the end of the project, rejecting the result if the standard is not met.
- Cybernetic monitoring (steering control) monitors the process as it is ongoing, using a feedback loop as shown in Figure 1.
Figure 1
Diagram covering project control: Input; Process; Measurement; Comparator; Standards; Effector and decision maker; Process and finally, Output
A control system should be
- Flexibility
- Cost-effective
- Meet the real needs of the program
- Operate ethically
- Operate in a timely manner
- Measurement sufficiently accurate
- Simple to operate
- Easy to maintain
- Fully documented
The Colour Spectrum of Reviews
Industry uses a number of reviews during a design process to increase the likelihood of success.
Here are some that are fairly common:
| Purple Team | Assesses the probability of winning the bid for a contract and examines a project’s alignment with the organization’s goals. |
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Blue Team |
Reviews requirements capture and the plan to address those requirements with the selected solution concept during the design effort.
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Black Team |
Tries to predict the solution approaches that the competition may come up with and ensure that your organisation's solution is the best. |
| Pink Team |
Reviews preliminary design via storyboards and mockups to confirm that the solutions being pursued are viable and to validate proposal strategy.
|
| Green Team |
Reviews the cost and pricing dimensions of the project and its viability to win the desired contract.
|
| Red Team |
Reviews the final design prior to submitting the proposal to the potential customer for evaluation and selection of the contract award.
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| Gold Team |
Approves the final proposal and price.
|
| White Team |
Compiles a list of lessons learned during the entire process in an effort to help on future projects. |
Preparing for a Review
In preparing for the review, break up your presentation into separate sections with specific goals established for each. The review will address the heart of the proposal and will look for gaps in the completed work, and any part of the requirements and specifications which have not been met by the design effort. The work should be checking against these "five Cs" of proposal review:
- Coherence – Is everything clear, concise, understandable, and does it stand on its own?
- Completeness – Is every requirement addressed? Is every specification met? Are there any gaps?
- Compliance – Do all sections meet all relevant guidelines and regulations? Is it consistent with your company’s policies and procedures?
- Consistency – Are all sections formatted exactly the same way, using the same font, same headings, same terms, etc.? Are units, terms of measurement, figure headings, table formats, etc., consistent throughout?
- Correctness – Are there any grammatical, spelling or typographical errors? If your presentation gives the impression that you did not sweat these details, then why should the customer believe that you paid attention to the technical details
Export Control
Export control regulations are intended to prevent the spread of technologies which are considered "dual use" because it is believed that they can be used for both civilian and military/terrorism purposes. Such equipment and technologies covered by these regulations are relatively extensive and from software, computers, cameras, centrifuges, autoclaves, accelerators, radiation detectors, etc. to a wide range of chemicals, biological agents and toxins. The list of items that may be subject to some form of regulation is extensive.
Many items on the list contain detailed specifications as to what can be transported overseas. It should be noted, that only technologies that are not publicly available are subject to the controls, although special rules apply even to some publicly available encryption software. Each type of item is classified in the export control regulations according to those countries to which it cannot be exported.
Some items cannot be exported anywhere at all without an export control license while others may be shipped only to certain countries without a license. Other items and technologies can be exported to all but a few specifically listed countries who are perceived as a particular security threat. These export control regulations are very complex and thus most companies have their own internal experts who are familiar with the regulations, rather than making every employee understand them in detail.
Smaller companies often hire an external expert. However, every employee should understand he general concept of export controls and should know who to go to for assistance if any subject arises during the design activity that could possibly be impacted by export control regulations.
International Traffic in Arms Regulations (ITAR)
The International Traffic in Arms Regulations (ITAR) defines regulations for products being shipped internationally. All manufacturers, exporters, and brokers of products which can be involved in defense articles, defense services or related technical data must be ITAR compliant. Generally, the export control expert in a company handles ITAR issues as well. It is not imperative that every engineer be aware of the details of such regulations. Rather, it is imperative that every engineer be aware of the concept of these regulations and how they can affect the business of the company when dealing with foreign customers. The employee can then address any pertinent issues to the appropriate expert who can assist in making sure all regulations are met.
Human Resources
Human Resources (HR) issues are often viewed by supervisors and managers as a source of bureaucratic hassle and extra work. But it is also the route to finding and hiring the right people for the job, and then keeping those people happy and satisfied in their career so that they are productive members of the organization. Organizations that are trying to change, whether they aim to become better corporate citizens or to simply be more successful, find that a smart and flexible HR department is extremely important.
The HR department should be involved in recruiting a diverse and skilled workforce and empowering each employee to do better, so as to improve themselves and the organization. But another way that HR can drive improve the organization is to work to remove any semblance of a philosophy of bias or harassment that exists. All employees should be treated equally, regardless of their characteristics, beliefs and background. And no employee should ever be subjected to harassment.
Harassment
Harassment is any behaviour that makes someone feel intimidated or offended. Such harassment is unacceptable in the workplace. Examples of bullying or harassing behaviour include:
- spreading malicious rumours
- unfair or inequitable treatment
- picking on someone
- practical jokes played on someone
- regularly undermining a competent worker
- denying someone’s training or promotion opportunities
- sexual advances or innuendo
- jokes or stories which can offend
Harassment can occur by any means including face-to-face conversation, letter, email, phone, or social media. Harassment can occur when someone is singled out due to their
- age
- sex
- any disability
- gender (including gender reassignment)
- marriage and civil partnership
- pregnancy and maternity
- race
- religion or belief
- sexual orientation
Harassment can take many different forms, some of which may be more easily identifiable than others. Harassment occurs whenever someone is repeatedly and deliberately abused, threatened and/or humiliated in circumstances relating to, or occurring at, their workplace. It may be carried out by managers, co-workers, service users or members of the public with which they employee deals. Harassment involves any action reducing the dignity, affecting the health and/or creating a hostile work environment for an employee.
A hostile work environment exists whenever a person’s behaviour in the workplace creates an environment that is uncomfortable for another employee. Actions frequently listed in sexual harassment claims include fondling, suggestive remarks, sexually-suggestive photos displayed in the workplace, use of sexual language or off-colour jokes, or repeated use of foul language. Small issues, annoyances, and isolated incidents typically are not considered to be violations. To be unlawful, the conduct must consistently create a work environment that would be intimidating, hostile, or offensive to a reasonable person. A hostile work environment may also occur when management acts in a manner which is intended to make an employee quit his or her job in retaliation for some action. Employers have tried to force employees to quit by imposing unwarranted discipline, reducing hours worked, reducing wages, or transferring the complaining employee to a distant work location or a job for which they are not adequately trained.
An employer can be held responsible for failing to prevent or stop such workplace conditions. Companies in some countries have lost lawsuits which have run to very large sums of money when harassment continually occurred with the company’s knowledge and no action was taken, or when complaints were filed by an employee and ignored by management.
In the European Union, harassment can be physical, psychological, and/or sexual. It can be one-time incidents or more systematic patterns of behaviour. It can be between colleagues, between superiors and subordinates or by third parties such as clients or customers. Violations can run from minor cases of disrespect to more serious acts, including criminal offences, which require the intervention of legal authorities.
Employers are responsible for identifying and managing the risk of harassment in the workplace. There must be clear policies in relation to the handling of harassment. They must work to raise awareness of related issues among the workforce and to establish standards of acceptable behaviour. In larger organizations, these policies are likely to be very formal so as to achieve consistency and fairness. In smaller organizations, policies are likely to be less formal. In any case, employees need to be aware of the behaviour expected of them. Additionally, they should know the options available to them if they feel they have been harassed.
Summary
- As a project progresses, or is implemented, it is imperative that you have a means of quantifying success. Choosing the best metric can guide the engineer in determining if the results are as desired, or if further improvement is required.
- Reporting the results of progress monitoring in a clear and concise fashion is the mark of a good project manager.
- One of the most important tools that can help an engineering team win a proposal is a strong Red Team review. With a good review process and the right review team members, the Red Team can ensure that the project has a better chance of success. Traditionally, the Red Team is normally tasked with evaluating the design team’s presentation and recommending corrections or improvements that will make it a more complete project. They do this by evaluating the proposal as if they were the customer, comparing it against the requirements, specifications and constraints that the design team has been working against during the course of the project.
- The entire series of review stages is designed to ensure that all aspects of the process are examined by expert eyes in an effort to make strengthen the project in every regard and at every stage.
- Organizations are impacted by numerous government laws and regulations. Perhaps the least well understood of these are the export control and ITAR regulations. Because they are not well understood, there is a risk that employees could overlook interactions with foreign entities which could actually be violations of the regulations. For this reason it is important that employees understand the general concept of the regulations and know how to find the organization’s designated expert in the area of export control.
- All employees at all levels of an organization need to be aware of the laws affecting workplace harassment and of the policies of your organization in that regard. Every employee needs to understand the behaviors that they might exhibit which could be construed as harassment, so that such behaviors can be avoided. Supervisors and managers need to additionally be aware of how to handle actions by their employees which could be construed as harassment and policies to be followed if an employee files a harassment claim or reports harassing behavior.
References and Bibliography
Dym, C. & Little, P. (2009). Engineering Design, 3rd edition. Hoboken, NJ, USA: Wiley.
Heizer, J., Munson, C. & Render, B. (2017). Operations Management. New York: Pearson.
Horenstein, M. (2002). Design Concepts for Engineers, 4th Edition. Upper Saddle River, NJ, USA: Prentice.
Meredith, J. & Mantel, S. (2012). Project Management, 8th edition. Hoboken, NJ, USA: Wiley.